Titanium is a chemical element with the symbol Ti and atomic number 22. Sometimes called the
"space age metal",it has a low density and is a strong, lustrous, corrosion-resistant (including seawater, aqua regia and chlorine) transition metal with a silver color.
Titanium was discovered in England by William Gregor in 1791 and named by Martin Heinrich Klaproth for the Titans of Greek mythology. The element occurs within a number of mineral deposits, principally rutile and ilmenite, which are widely distributed in the Earth's crust and lithosphere, and it is found in almost all living things, rocks, water bodies, and soils. The metal is extracted from its principal mineral ores via the Kroll process or the Hunter process. Its most common compound, titanium dioxide, is a popular photocatalyst and is used in the manufacture of white pigments. Other compounds include titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4), a component of smoke screens and catalysts; and titanium trichloride (TiCl3), which is used as a catalyst in the production of polypropylene).
Titanium can be alloyed with iron, aluminium, vanadium, molybdenum, among other
elements, to produce strong lightweight alloys for aerospace (jet engines, missiles, and spacecraft), military, industrial process (chemicals and petro-chemicals,
desalination plants, pulp, and paper), automotive, agri-food, medical prostheses, orthopedic implants, dental and endodontic instruments and files, dental implants,
sporting goods, jewelry, mobile phones, and other applications.
The two most useful properties of the metal form are corrosion resistance and the highest strength-to-weight ratio of any metal. In its unalloyed condition, titanium
is as strong as some steels, but 45% lighter. There are two allotropic forms and five naturally occurring isotopes of this element, 46Ti through 50Ti, with 48Ti being
the most abundant (73.8%). Titanium's properties are chemically and physically similar to zirconium, because both of them have the same number of valence electrons and are in the same group in the periodic table.
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Characteristics
Physical properties
A metallic element, titanium is recognized for its high strength-to-weight ratio.
It is a strong metal with low density that is quite ductile (especially in an oxygen-
free environment),lustrous, and metallic-white in color. The relatively high
melting point (more than 1,650 °C or 3,000 °F) makes it useful as a refractory
metal. It is paramagnetic and has fairly low electrical and thermal conductivity.
Commercial (99.2% pure) grades of titanium have ultimate tensile strength of about
63,000 psi (434 MPa), equal to that of common, low-grade steel alloys, but are 45%
lighter.Titanium is 60% more dense than aluminium, but more than twice as strong
as the most commonly used 6061-T6 aluminium alloy. Certain titanium alloys (e.g.,
Beta C) achieve tensile strengths of over 200,000 psi (1,400 MPa). However,
titanium loses strength when heated above 430 °C (806 °F).
It is fairly hard although not as hard as some grades of heat-treated steel, non-
magnetic and a poor conductor of heat and electricity. Machining requires precautions,
as the material will soften and gall if sharp tools and proper cooling methods are not
used. Like those made from steel, titanium structures have a fatigue limit which
guarantees longevity in some applications.[10] Titanium alloys specific stiffnesses
are also usually not as good as other materials such as aluminium alloys and carbon
fiber, so it is used less for structures which require high rigidity.
The metal is a dimorphic allotrope whose hexagonal alpha form changes into a body-
centered cubic (lattice) β form at 882 °C (1,620 °F). The specific heat of the
alpha form increases dramatically as it is heated to this transition temperature but
then falls and remains fairly constant for the β form regardless of temperature.
Similar to zirconium and hafnium, an additional omega phase exists, which is
thermodynamically stable at high pressures, but is metastable at ambient pressures.
This phase is usually hexagonal (ideal) or trigonal (distorted) and can be viewed as
being due to a soft longitudinal acoustic phonon of the β phase causing collapse of
(111) planes of atoms.
Chemical Composition
The most noted chemical property of titanium is its excellent resistance to corrosion;
it is almost as resistant as platinum, capable of withstanding attack by dilute
sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid as well as chlorine gas, chloride solutions, and
most organic acids. However, it is soluble in concentrated acids. The following
Pourbaix diagram shows that titanium is actually thermodynamically a very reactive
metal.
The Pourbaix diagram for titanium in pure water, perchloric acid or sodium hydroxide
However, it is slow to react with water and air, because it forms a passive and
protective oxide coating that protects it from further reaction.When it first
forms, this protective layer is only 1–2 nm thick but continues to slowly grow;
reaching a thickness of 25 nm in four years. When exposed to elevated temperatures
in air, however, it readily reacts with oxygen.
This occurs at 1,200 °C (2,190 °F) in air, and at 610 °C (1,130 °F) in pure
oxygen, forming titanium dioxide. As a result, the metal cannot be melted in open
air since it burns before the melting point is reached. Melting is only possible in an
inert atmosphere or in a vacuum. At 550 °C (1,022 °F), it combines with chlorine.
It also reacts with the other halogens and absorbs hydrogen.
Titanium is one of the few elements that burns in pure nitrogen gas, reacting at 800
°C (1,470 °F) to form titanium nitride, which causes embrittlement.
Experiments have shown that natural titanium becomes radioactive after it is bombarded
with deuterons, emitting mainly positrons and hard gamma rays.
Compounds
TiN coated drill bitThe +4 oxidation state dominates titanium chemistry,but
compounds in the +3 oxidation state are also common.Because of this high
oxidation state, many titanium compounds have a high degree of covalent bonding.
Star sapphires and rubies get their asterism from the titanium dioxide impurities
present in them. Titanates are compounds made with titanium dioxide. Barium
titanate has piezoelectric properties, thus making it possible to use it as a
transducer in the interconversion of sound and electricity. Esters of titanium are
formed by the reaction of alcohols and titanium tetrachloride and are used to
waterproof fabrics.
Titanium nitride (TiN), having a hardness equivalent to sapphire and carborundum (9.0
on the Mohs Scale), is often used to coat cutting tools, such as drill bits.
It also finds use as a gold-colored decorative finish, and as a barrier metal in
semiconductor fabrication.
Titanium tetrachloride (titanium(IV) chloride, TiCl4, sometimes called "tickle")
is a colorless liquid which is used as an intermediate in the manufacture of titanium
dioxide for paint. It is widely used in organic chemistry as a Lewis acid, for
example in the Mukaiyama aldol condensation.Titanium also forms a lower chloride,
titanium(III) chloride (TiCl3), which is used as a reducing agent.
Titanocene dichloride is an important catalyst for carbon-carbon bond formation.
Titanium isopropoxide is used for Sharpless epoxidation. Other compounds include
titanium bromide (used in metallurgy, superalloys, and high-temperature electrical
wiring and coatings) and titanium carbide (found in high-temperature cutting tools and
coatings).
Occurrence|
2003 production of titanium dioxide, in thousands of tonnes.Producer Production
% of total
Australia 1291.0 30.6
South Africa 850.0 20.1
Canada 767.0 18.2
Norway 382.9 9.1
Ukraine 357.0 8.5
Other countries 573.1 13.6
Total world 4221.0 100.0
Because of rounding, values do not sum to 100%.Titanium is always bonded to other
elements in nature. It is the ninth-most abundant element in the Earth's crust (0.63%
by mass) and the seventh-most abundant metal. It is present in most igneous rocks
and in sediments derived from them (as well as in living things and natural bodies of
water). Of the 801 types of igneous rocks analyzed by the United States
Geological Survey, 784 contained titanium.Its proportion in soils is
approximately 0.5 to 1.5%.
It is widely distributed and occurs primarily in the minerals anatase, brookite,
ilmenite, perovskite, rutile, titanite (sphene), as well in many iron ores.Of
these minerals, only rutile and ilmenite have any economic importance, yet even they
are difficult to find in high concentrations. Significant titanium-bearing ilmenite
deposits exist in western Australia, Canada, China, India, New Zealand, Norway, and
Ukraine. Large quantities of rutile are also mined in North America and South
Africa and help contribute to the annual production of 90,000 tonnes of the metal and
4.3 million tonnes of titanium dioxide. Total reserves of titanium are estimated
to exceed 600 million tonnes.
Titanium is contained in meteorites and has been detected in the sun and in M-type
stars;the coolest type of star with a surface temperature of 3,200 °C (5,790 °
F). Rocks brought back from the moon during the Apollo 17 mission are composed of
12.1% TiO2. It is also found in coal ash, plants, and even the human body.
Isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of titanium
Naturally occurring titanium is composed of 5 stable isotopes: 46Ti, 47Ti, 48Ti, 49Ti,
and 50Ti, with 48Ti being the most abundant (73.8% natural abundance). Eleven
radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being 44Ti with a half-
life of 63 years, 45Ti with a half-life of 184.8 minutes, 51Ti with a half-life of
5.76 minutes, and 52Ti with a half-life of 1.7 minutes. All of the remaining
radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 33 seconds and the majority of
these have half-lives that are less than half a second.
The isotopes of titanium range in atomic weight from 39.99 u (40Ti) to 57.966 u
(58Ti). The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 48Ti, is
electron capture and the primary mode after is beta emission. The primary decay
products before 48Ti are element 21 (scandium) isotopes and the primary products after
are element 23 (vanadium) isotopes
.
History
Martin Heinrich Klaproth named titanium for the Titans of Greek mythology.Titanium was
discovered included in a mineral in Cornwall, England, in 1791 by amateur geologist
and pastor William Gregor, then vicar of Creed parish.[30] He recognized the presence
of a new element in ilmenite when he found black sand by a stream in the nearby
parish of Manaccan and noticed the sand was attracted by a magnet. Analysis of the
sand determined the presence of two metal oxides; iron oxide (explaining the
attraction to the magnet) and 45.25% of a white metallic oxide he could not identify.
Gregor, realizing that the unidentified oxide contained a metal that did not
match the properties of any known element, reported his findings to the Royal
Geological Society of Cornwall and in the German science journal Crell's Annalen.
Around the same time, Franz-Joseph Müller von Reichenstein produced a similar
substance, but could not identify it. The oxide was independently rediscovered in
1795 by German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth in rutile from Hungary. Klaproth
found that it contained a new element and named it for the Titans of Greek mythology.
After hearing about Gregor's earlier discovery, he obtained a sample of
manaccanite and confirmed it contained titanium.
The processes required to extract titanium from its various ores are laborious and
costly; it is not possible to reduce in the normal manner, by heating in the presence
of carbon, because that produces titanium carbide. Pure metallic titanium (99.9%)
was first prepared in 1910 by Matthew A. Hunter at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute by
heating TiCl4 with sodium at 700–800 °C in the Hunter process. Titanium metal was
not used outside the laboratory until 1932 when William Justin Kroll proved that it
could be produced by reducing titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4) with calcium.Eight
years later he refined this process by using magnesium and even sodium in what became
known as the Kroll process. Although research continues into more efficient and
cheaper processes (e.g., FFC Cambridge), the Kroll process is still used for
commercial production.
Titanium sponge, made by the Kroll processTitanium of very high purity was made in
small quantities when Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer discovered the
iodide, or crystal bar, process in 1925, by reacting with iodine and decomposing the
formed vapors over a hot filament to pure metal.
In the 1950s and 1960s the Soviet Union pioneered the use of titanium in military and
submarine applications (Alfa Class and Mike Class) as part of programs related to
the Cold War. Starting in the early 1950s, titanium began to be used extensively
for military aviation purposes, particularly in high-performance jets, starting with
aircraft such as the F100 Super Sabre and Lockheed A-12.
In the USA, the Department of Defense realized the strategic importance of the metal
and supported early efforts of commercialization. Throughout the period of
the Cold War, titanium was considered a Strategic Material by the U.S. government, and
a large stockpile of titanium sponge was maintained by the Defense National Stockpile
Center, which was finally depleted in 2005. Today, the world's largest producer,
Russian-based VSMPO-Avisma, is estimated to account for about 29% of the world market
share.
In 2006, the U.S. Defense Agency awarded $5.7 million to a two-company consortium to
develop a new process for making titanium metal powder. Under heat and pressure, the
powder can be used to create strong, lightweight items ranging from armor plating to
components for the aerospace, transportation, and chemical processing industries.
Production and fabrication.
Titanium (mineral concentrate)The processing of titanium metal occurs in 4 major
steps:reduction of titanium ore into "sponge", a porous form; melting of sponge,
or sponge plus a master alloy to form an ingot; primary fabrication, where an ingot is
converted into general mill products such as billet, bar, plate, sheet, strip, and
tube; and secondary fabrication of finished shapes from mill products.
Because the metal reacts with oxygen at high temperatures it cannot be produced by
reduction of its dioxide. Titanium metal is therefore produced commercially by the
Kroll process, a complex and expensive batch process. (The relatively high market
value of titanium is mainly due to its processing, which sacrifices another expensive
metal, magnesium.) In the Kroll process, the oxide is first converted to chloride
through carbochlorination, whereby chlorine gas is passed over red-hot rutile or
ilmenite in the presence of carbon to make TiCl4. This is condensed and purified by
fractional distillation and then reduced with 800 °C molten magnesium in an argon
atmosphere.
A more recently developed method, the FFC Cambridge process, may eventually replace
the Kroll process. This method uses titanium dioxide powder (which is a refined form
of rutile) as feedstock to make the end product which is either a powder or sponge. If
mixed oxide powders are used, the product is an alloy manufactured at a much lower
cost than the conventional multi-step melting process. The FFC Cambridge process may
render titanium a less rare and expensive material for the aerospace industry and the
luxury goods market, and could be seen in many products currently manufactured using
aluminium and specialist grades of steel.
Common titanium alloys are made by reduction. For example, cuprotitanium (rutile with
copper added is reduced), ferrocarbon titanium (ilmenite reduced with coke in an
electric furnace), and manganotitanium (rutile with manganese or manganese oxides) are
reduced.
2 FeTiO3 + 7 Cl2 + 6 C → 2 TiCl4 + 2 FeCl3 + 6 CO (900 °C)
TiCl4 + 2 Mg → 2 MgCl2 + Ti (1100 °C)
About 50 grades of titanium and titanium alloys are designated and currently used,
although only a couple of dozen are readily available commercially. The ASTM
International recognizes 31 Grades of titanium metal and alloys, of which Grades 1
through 4 are commercially pure (unalloyed). These four are distinguished by their
varying degrees of tensile strength, as a function of oxygen content, with Grade 1
being the most ductile (lowest tensile strength with an oxygen content of 0.18%), and
Grade 4 the least (highest tensile strength with an oxygen content of 0.40%). The
remaining grades are alloys, each designed for specific purposes, be it ductility,
strength, hardness, electrical resistivity, creep resistance, resistance to corrosion
from specific media, or a combination thereof.
The grades covered by ASTM and other alloys are also produced to meet Aerospace and
Military specifications (SAE-AMS, MIL-T), ISO standards, and country-specific
specifications, as well as proprietary end-user specifications for aerospace,
military, medical, and industrial applications.
In terms of fabrication, all welding of titanium must be done in an inert atmosphere
of argon or helium in order to shield it from contamination with atmospheric gases
such as oxygen, nitrogen, or hydrogen.Contamination will cause a variety of
conditions, such as embrittlement, which will reduce the integrity of the assembly
welds and lead to joint failure. Commercially pure flat product (sheet, plate) can be
formed readily, but processing must take into account the fact that the metal has a
"memory" and tends to spring back. This is especially true of certain high-strength
alloys. The metal can be machined using the same equipment and via the same processes
as stainless steel.
Applications
a titanium cylinder, "GRADE 2" quality, Titanium is used in steel as an alloying element
(ferro-titanium) to reduce grain size and as a deoxidizer, and in stainless steel tube to
reduce carbon content.Titanium is often alloyed with aluminium (to refine grain size),
vanadium, copper (to harden), iron, manganese, molybdenum, and with other metals.[49]
Applications for titanium mill products (sheet, plate, bar, wire, forgings, castings)
can be found in industrial, aerospace, recreational, and emerging markets. Powdered
titanium is used in pyrotechnics as a source of bright-burning particles.
Pigments, additives and coatings
Titanium dioxide is the most commonly used compound of titaniumAbout 95% of titanium
ore extracted from the Earth is destined for refinement into titanium dioxide (TiO2),
an intensely white permanent pigment used in paints, paper, toothpaste, and plastics.
It is also used in cement, in gemstones, as an optical opacifier in paper, and a
strengthening agent in graphite composite fishing rods and golf clubs.
TiO2 powder is chemically inert, resists fading in sunlight, and is very opaque: this
allows it to impart a pure and brilliant white color to the brown or gray chemicals
that form the majority of household plastics.In nature, this compound is found in the
minerals anatase, brookite, and rutile Paint made with titanium dioxide does well in
severe temperatures, is somewhat self-cleaning, and stands up to marine environments.
Pure titanium dioxide has a very high index of refraction and an optical dispersion
higher than diamond. In addition to being a very important pigment, titanium dioxide
is also used in sunscreens due to its ability to protect skin by itself.
Recently, it has been put to use in air purifiers (as a filter coating), or in film
used to coat windows on buildings which when exposed to UV light (either solar or man
-made) and moisture in the air produces reactive redox species like hydroxyl radicals
that can purify the air or keep window surfaces clean.
Aerospace and marine
Due to their high tensile strength to density ratio, high corrosion resistance,fatigue
resistance, high crack resistance, and ability to withstand moderately high
temperatures without creeping, titanium alloys are used in aircraft, armor plating,
naval ships, spacecraft, and missiles. For these applications titanium alloyed with
aluminium, vanadium, and other elements is used for a variety of components including
critical structural parts, fire walls, landing gear, exhaust ducts (helicopters), and
hydraulic systems. In fact, about two thirds of all titanium metal produced is used in
aircraft engines and frames. The SR-71 "Blackbird" was one of the first aircraft to
make extensive use of titanium within its structure, paving the way for its use in
modern military and commercial aircraft. An estimated 59 metric tons (130,000 pounds)
are used in the Boeing 777, 45 in the Boeing 747, 18 in the Boeing 737, 32 in the
Airbus A340, 18 in the Airbus A330, and 12 in the Airbus A320. The Airbus A380 may use
146 metric tons, including about 26 tons in the engines.[55] In engine applications,
titanium is used for rotors, compressor blades, hydraulic system components, and
nacelles. The titanium 6AL-4V alloy accounts for almost 50% of all alloys used in
aircraft applications.
Due to its high corrosion resistance to sea water, titanium is used to make propeller
shafts and rigging and in the heat exchangers of desalination plants; in heater-
chillers for salt water aquariums, fishing line and leader, and for divers' knives.
Titanium is used to manufacture the housings and other components of ocean-deployed
surveillance and monitoring devices for scientific and military use. The former Soviet
Union developed techniques for making submarines largely out of titanium.
Industrial
Welded titanium pipe and process equipment (heat exchangers, tanks, process vessels,
valves) are used in the chemical and petrochemical industries primarily for corrosion
resistance. Specific alloys are used in downhole and nickel hydrometallurgy
applications due to their high strength titanium Beta C, corrosion resistance, or
combination of both. The pulp and paper industry uses titanium in process equipment
exposed to corrosive media such as sodium hypochlorite or wet chlorine gas (in the
bleachery). Other applications include: ultrasonic welding, wave soldering,and
sputtering targets.
Titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4), a colorless liquid, is important as an intermediate in
the process of making TiO2 and is also used to produce the Ziegler-Natta catalyst, and
is used to iridize glass and because it fumes strongly in moist air it is also used to
make smoke screens.
Consumer and architectural
Titanium metal is used in automotive applications, particularly in automobile or
motorcycle racing, where weight reduction is critical while maintaining high strength
and rigidity. The metal is generally too expensive to make it marketable to the
general consumer market, other than high-end products, particularly for the
racing/performance market. Late model Corvettes have been available with titanium
exhausts.
The Guggenheim Museum Bilbao is sheathed in titanium panels.Titanium is used in many
sporting goods: tennis rackets, golf clubs, lacrosse stick shafts; cricket, hockey,
lacrosse, and football helmet grills; and bicycle frames and components. Although not
a mainstream material for bicycle production, titanium bikes have been used by race
teams and adventure cyclists. Titanium alloys are also used in spectacle frames.This
results in a rather expensive, but highly durable and long lasting frame which is
light in weight and causes no skin allergies. Many backpackers use titanium equipment,
including cookware, eating utensils, lanterns, and tent stakes.Though slightly more
expensive than traditional steel or aluminium alternatives, these titanium products
can be significantly lighter without compromising strength. Titanium is also favored
for use by farriers, since it is lighter and more durable than steel when formed into
horseshoes.
Because of its durability, titanium has become more popular for designer jewelry
(particularly, titanium rings).Its inertness makes it a good choice for those with
allergies or those who will be wearing the jewelry in environments such as swimming
pools. Titanium's durability, light weight, dent- and corrosion- resistance makes it
useful in the production of watch cases.[64] Some artists work with titanium to
produce artworks such as sculptures, decorative objects and furniture.
Titanium has occasionally been used in architectural applications: the 40 m (120 foot)
memorial to Yuri Gagarin, the first man to travel in space, in Moscow, is made of
titanium for the metal's attractive color and association with rocketry. The
Guggenheim Museum Bilbao and the Cerritos Millennium Library were the first buildings
in Europe and North America, respectively, to be sheathed in titanium panels.Other
construction uses of titanium sheathing include the Frederic C. Hamilton Building in
Denver, Coloradoand the 107 m (350 foot) Monument to the Conquerors of Space in
Moscow.
Due to its superior strength and light weight when compared to other metals
traditionally used in firearms (steel, stainless steel, and aluminium), and advances
in metalworking techniques, the use of titanium has become more widespread in the
manufacture of firearms. Primary uses include pistol frames and revolver cylinders.
For these same reasons, it is also used in the body of laptop computers (for example,
in Apple's PowerBook line).
Some upmarket categories of tools made to be lightweight and corrosion-resistant, such
as shovels and flashlights, are made of titanium or titanium alloys as well.
Medical
Orthopedic implants
A fracture of the eye socket was repaired by stabilizing the fractured bones with
small titanium plates and screws.Because it is biocompatible (non-toxic and is not
rejected by the body), titanium is used in a gamut of medical applications including
surgical implements and implants, such as hip balls and sockets (joint replacement)
that can stay in place for up to 20 years.The titanium is often alloyed with about 4%
aluminium or 6% Al and 4% vanadium.
Titanium has the inherent property to osseointegrate, enabling use in dental implants
that can remain in place for over 30 years. This property is also useful for
orthopedic implant applications.These benefit from titanium's lower modulus of
elasticity (Young's modulus) to more closely match that of the bone that such devices
are intended to repair. As a result, skeletal loads are more evenly shared between
bone and implant, leading to a lower incidence of bone degradation due to stress
shielding and periprosthetic bone fractures which occur at the boundaries of
orthopedic implants. However, titanium alloys' stiffness is still more than twice that
of bone so adjacent bone bears a greatly reduced load and may deteriorate.
Since titanium is non-ferromagnetic, patients with titanium implants can be safely
examined with magnetic resonance imaging (convenient for long-term implants).
Preparing titanium for implantation in the body involves subjecting it to a high-
temperature plasma arc which removes the surface atoms, exposing fresh titanium that
is instantly oxidized.
Piercings
Its inertness and ability to be attractively colored makes it a popular metal for use
in body piercing.Titanium may be anodized to produce various colors, which varies the
thickness of the surface oxide layer and causes interference fringes.
Other
Titanium is also used for the surgical instruments used in image-guided surgery, as
well as wheelchairs, crutches, and any other products where high strength and low
weight are desirable.
Precautions
Nettle contains up to 80 parts per million of titanium.Titanium is non-toxic even in
large doses and does not play any natural role inside the human body. An estimated
0.8 milligrams of titanium is ingested by humans each day but most passes through
without being absorbed.[29] It does, however, have a tendency to bio-accumulate in
tissues that contain silica. An unknown mechanism in plants may use titanium to
stimulate the production of carbohydrates and encourage growth. This may explain why
most plants contain about 1 part per million (ppm) of titanium, food plants have about
2 ppm, and horsetail and nettle contain up to 80 ppm.
As a powder or in the form of metal shavings, titanium metal poses a significant fire
hazard and, when heated in air, an explosion hazard. Water and carbon dioxide-
based methods to extinguish fires are ineffective on burning titanium; Class D dry
powder fire fighting agents must be used instead.
When used in the production or handling of chlorine, care must be taken to use
titanium only in locations where it will not be exposed to dry chlorine gas which can
result in a titanium/chlorine fire. A fire hazard exists even when titanium is used in
wet chlorine due to possible unexpected drying brought about by extreme weather
conditions.
Titanium can catch fire when a fresh, non-oxidized surface comes in contact with
liquid oxygen. Such surfaces can appear when the oxidized surface is struck with a
hard object, or when a mechanical strain causes the emergence of a crack. This poses
the possible limitation for its use in liquid oxygen systems, such as those found in
the aerospace industry.
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